Inventories
Inventories are instruments that
attempt to "take stock" of one or more aspects of an individual’s
behavior rather than to measure in the usual sense. Inventories have been used
in educational research to obtain trait descriptions of certain defined groups
such as underachievers, dropouts, members of minority groups, etc. They have
also been used in research concerned with interrelationships between
personality traits and such variables as intelligence, achievement, and
attitudes.
Advantages
Economy
Simplicity
Objectivity
Disadvantages
The information obtained may be
superficial or biased.
The difficulty of validating
inventories limits their use as scientific instruments.
To validate an inventory, one
demonstrates that the scores obtained on it agree highly with some other
reliable device for measuring the factor under study.
Scale
A scale is a set of numerical
values assigned to subjects, objects, or behaviors for the purpose of
quantifying the measuring qualities. Scales are used to measure attitudes,
values, and interests. They measure the degree to which an individual possesses
the characteristic of interest.
Used as a measuring instrument.
Used to indicate a measuring
instrument.
Used to indicate the systematized
numerals of the measuring instrument.
Tests
are scales, but scales are not tests.
Attitude is an integral part of
the personality (as to the way we think, feel, perceive, and behave toward a
cognitive objective). Attitude scales have three major types which are the
summated rating scales, equal appearing interval scales, and cumulative or
Guttman scales.
The summated rating scale is a
set of attitude items, all of which are considered of approximately equal
attitude value and to which the subjects respond with degrees of agreement or
disagreement (intensity). The scores of the items of such a scale are summed or
summed and averaged to yield an individual’s attitude score.
Characteristics
U is the universe of items -
means that there is no scale of items as such, but the individuals responding
to the items are scaled
Intensity of attitude expression
- Respondents are asked to indicate whether they agree very strongly (7), agree
strongly (6), agree (5), disagree (3), disagree strongly (2), disagree very
strongly (1), no response (4)
Equal-Appearing Interval Scales
are used to scale the attitude items. Each item is assigned a scale value, and
the scale value indicates the strength of attitude of an agreement response to
the item. The universe of items is considered to be an ordered set, items
differ in scale value. The scaling procedure finds these scale values. In
addition, the items of the final scale to be used are so selected that the intervals
between them are equal, a most important and desirable psychometric feature.
Cumulative or Guttman Scale
consists of a relatively small set of homogeneous items that are unidimensional
(or supposed to be). Unidimensional scale measures one variable and only one
variable. The scale gets its name from the cumulative relation between items
and the total scores of individuals.
Summated Rating Scales
concentrate on the subject and their places on the scale, most useful in
behavioral research. Equal-Appearing Interval Scales concentrate on the items
and their place on the scale. Cumulative Scales concentrate on the scalability
of sets of items and on the scale position of individuals.
The value scale is a culturally
weighted reference for a thing or things for people, for institutions, or for
some kind of behavior. Simply put, values express the good, bad, shoulds, and
oughts of human behavior.
The objective scale and items are
independent and non-independent. The types of objective scale include:
Agreement-Disagreement Items
Those permitting one of two
possible responses
Those permitting one of three or
more possible responses
Those permitting more than one
choice of three or more possible responses
Rank Order Items
Forced Choice Items
Direct Observation
Direct observation is a measuring
instrument used to measure such traits as self-control, cooperativeness,
truthfulness, and honesty. In many cases, systematic direct observation of
behavior is the most desirable measurement method. An investigator identified
the behavior of interest and devises a systematic procedure for identifying,
categorizing, and recording the behavior in either a natural or
"staged" situation.
Systematic Direct Observation
Selecting the aspect of behavior
to be observed. An observer cannot notice everything that happens. Select first
the behavior upon which the investigator wishes to focus.
Defining the behavior that fall
within a category. Know in advance what will or will not be classified as
aggressive behavior, problem-solving behavior or any other classification of
interest.
Training observers. Observers
must be trained for uniformity of interpretation and standard application of
the observation categories.
Quantifying observations. An
observation system must include a standard method for counting behaviors.
Developing procedures to
facilitate recording. Procedures to facilitate recording must be developed to
avoid errors of selectivity of memory. A useful technique is to develop a
coding plan that enables observers to record their observations with a single
letter or digit rather than in narrative form.
Semantic Differential
The semantic differential (SD) is
a method of observing and measuring the psychological meaning of words, usually
concepts. An actual SD consists of a number of scales, each of which is a
bipolar adjective pair. The bipolar adjectives are usually seven-point rating
scales. Each scale measures one or two of the basic dimensions or factors that
Osgood and his colleagues have found to be behind the scales: Evaluative,
Potency, Activity.
Evaluative scales include pairs
such as good-bad, bitter-sweet, large-small, and dirty-clean. A second cluster
has adjectives that seem to share strength or potency ideas (strong-weak,
rugged-delicate). A third scale is called activity because its adjectives seem
to express motion and action (fast-slow, hot-cold).
The first step in construction
and use of SD is to choose the concepts or other stimuli to be rated with
bipolar adjectives. The researcher needs to choose a number of concepts that
are relevant to the research problem. A sample of concepts must be judiciously
chosen to represent some part of the semantic space. The second step is to
select appropriate scales or adjective pairs. Two main criterion determine the
selection including factor representatives and relevance to the concept used.
It is a combination of the usual
types of rating scales with factor analysis.
The technique is extremely
flexible and simple to construct, administer, and score.
The semantic differential is
subject to all of the limitation of rating scales, the possibilities of faking
responses, acquiescing (tendency to place marks in the middle position), and
having to mark a concept on a meaningless scale (is honesty more purple or green?).
Validity and reliability of
semantic differential scales are generally satisfactory. The validity studies
show correlation coefficients of approximately .80 between the semantic
differential ratings and Thurstone, Likert, and Guttman scales. The test-retest
reliability of the semantic differential is reported to be about .90.
The semantic differential is a
useful technique for measuring attitudes toward objects.
Example
Below describe how you feel about
agriculture by placing a check in one of the seven spaces between each word
pair.
traditional _____
_____ _____ _____
_____ _____ progressive
simple _____ _____
_____ _____ _____
_____ complicated
like me _____ _____
_____ _____ _____
_____ unlike me
friendly _____ _____
_____ _____ _____
_____ unfriendly
challenging _____ _____
_____ _____ _____
_____ simple
serious _____ _____
_____ _____ _____
_____ humorous
stale _____ _____
_____ _____ _____
_____ fresh
work _____ _____
_____ _____ _____
_____ fun
relaxed _____ _____
_____ _____ _____
_____ tense
clear _____ _____
_____ _____ _____
_____ confusing
unstructured _____ _____
_____ _____ _____
_____ structured
bright _____ _____
_____ _____ _____
_____ dull
systematic _____ _____
_____ _____ _____
_____ unsystematic
masculine _____ _____
_____ _____ _____
_____ feminine
active _____ _____
_____ _____ _____
_____ passive
accepting _____ _____
_____ _____ _____
_____ rejecting
closed _____ _____
_____ _____ _____
_____ open
Q Methodology
Q methodology is used for the
study of intrapersonal relations. The Q technique is a set of procedures used
to implement Q methodology. It is well suited to small samples and makes use of
the correlation between persons rather than the correlation between tests. The
Q technique centers particularly in the sorting of decks of cards called Q
sorts and in the correlations among the responses of different individuals to
the Q sorts.
Steps in the application of Q
methodology
Begin with the development of
items, usually 60 to 150, from theoretical formulation.
Each statement is printed on a
separate card and presented to respondents who sort them into piles. Generally,
there are 11 piles, ranging from "most applicable to oneself" to
"least like oneself."
The Q technique requires each
respondent to sort his deck of cards into a symmetrical distribution with the
number of cards to be sorted into each pile fixed by the investigator.
Most
Applicable Least Applicable
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
cards to
be placed in each pile 2 3 5 7 9 13 9 7 5 3 2 n=65
After sorting, each statement is
assigned a score corresponding to the pile into which it is placed.
If a number of individuals are
involved in a study using just one sort, the correlation between the
individuals for each item or statement can be computed and a factor analysis
run to determine which individuals are responding similarly.
An alternative procedure is to have
each person sort the deck numerous times under different conditions, such as
for idealized and actual self. The correlation between two sorts can then be
used as a measure of adjustment.
Advantages
It is theoretically oriented.
Sortings can be analyzed quite
objectively without entirely sacrificing the richness of the usual clinical and
much less objective methods.
Q can test the effects of
independent variables on complex dependent variables.
It is useful in exploratory
research.
It is interesting to subjects
because the method is realistic as well as challenging.
Disadvantages
It is not a method well suited to
cross-sectional or large sample purposes.
Q placements violate the
independence assumption in all forced-choice procedures.
Q is a forced-choice procedure
which is unnatural because it requires the subject to conform to an
unreasonable requirement.
Important information on
elevation and scatter may be lost with the forced Q procedure.
Conference
The Conference technique is a face-to-face
discussion of a topic of interest.
Experts are brought together at a
common site.
The group brainstorms to generate
as many ideas on the problem as possible. The only rule regarding this step is
that there are no negative reactions to any suggestions.
The experts then evaluate and
rate the suggestions.
The most popular responses are
determined, and an arbitrary number are chosen based on natural breaks or
logic.
Finally, the group discusses the
strengths and weaknesses of the top suggestions and ranks the final choices.
One major drawback to this method
of data gathering is the influence of personalities as a strong factor in
determining consensus.
Delphi Technique
The Delphi technique is used in
the planning process, especially with appraising the future political,
economic, and social environment, ascertaining the role of the organization in
this environment, and anticipating and perceiving the needs and requirements of
client groups.
The Delphi technique is a means
of securing expert convergent opinion without bringing the experts together in
face-to-face confrontation. This opinion of experts is usually gained through
the use of successive questionnaires and feedback with each round of questions
being designed to produce more carefully considered group opinions.
Procedure
A questionnaire is mailed to
respondents who remain anonymous to one another. The first questionnaire may
call for a list of opinions involving experienced judgment, a list of
predictions, or a list of recommended activities.
On the second round, each expert
receives a copy of the list and is asked to rate or evaluate each item by some
such criterion as importance, probability of success, etc.
The third questionnaire, which
includes the list and ratings, indicates the consensus, if any, and asks the
experts either to revise their opinion or specify their reasons for remaining
outside the consensus.
The fourth questionnaire includes
lists, ratings, consensus, and minority opinions. It provides the final chance
for revision of opinions.
Advantages
It allows planners to get the
views in a broad perspective rather than from an isolated point of view.
Delphi in combination with other
tools is a very potent device for teaching people to think about the future of
education in much more complex ways than they ordinarily would.
It is a useful instrument even
for a general teaching strategy.
It is a planning tool which may
aid in probing priorities held by members and constituencies of an
organization.
Delphi saves time and travel
which are required to bring people together for a conference.
Delphi prevents personality
biases from affecting the results.
Disadvantages
Interpretation of the
participants’ responses and the meaning of the importance of the factors in
planning is difficult.
It is unknown how the findings
can be generalized to Delphis which cover a 30 year extension into the future.
Delphi at present can render no
rigorous distinction between reasonable judgment and mere guessing.
It is difficult to determine the
amount of bias injected into the results by the person administering the
Delphi.
Nominal Group Technique
The committee chairman reiterates
that the role of everyone present is to contribute his perceptions, expertise,
and experience to the identification of priority problems. He emphasizes that
the purpose is to identify and describe priority problems and needs. He indicates
that each member is to work individually without interacting verbally with each
other. The committee chairman distributes the problem or need identification
form to the members and ask them to respond in writing to the questions or
statement on the form, giving an example of the kind of response.
Without discussion, silently and
independently, each member lists on the form the problems and/or needs for
approximately 10 minutes. The chairman enforces silence by requesting that
those who have stopped writing not talk with others and think more deeply for
other possible items.
The recorder now asks each member
to state an item from their list. The items are recorded until all lists have
been included. Discussion of items in not allowed and no concern is given to
overlap of items at this time. However, members are encouraged to generate new
ideas on their forms based on items presented by other group members.
The group now discusses for
approximately 20 minutes the items listed for the purpose of clarification,
elaboration, combination of items, or addition of new items.
Without discussion and acting
independently, each group member should select and prioritize the items
believed to be most critical. The recorder asks for each member to give the
items selected in priority order. The most critical items are determined by the
total amount of interest and votes. Discussion of voting and priority items
continues until a consensus is reached.
Focus Groups
Focus groups have been a mainstay
in private sector marketing research for the past three decades. More recently,
public sector organizations are beginning to discover the potential of this
procedures. Educational and nonprofit organizations have traditionally used
face-to-face interviews and questionnaires to get information. Unfortunately,
these popular techniques are sometimes inadequate in meeting information needs
of decision makers. The focus group is unique from these other procedures; it
allows for group interaction and greater insight into why certain opinions are
held. Focus groups can improve the planning and design of new programs, provide
means of evaluating existing programs, and produce insights for developing
marketing strategies.
Characteristics
Involve people. It must be small
enough for everyone to have opportunity to share insights and yet large enough
to provide diversity of perceptions. Focus groups are typically composed of 6
to 10 people, but the size can range from as few as 4 to as many as 12.
Conducted in series. Multiple
groups with similar participants are needed to detect patterns and trends
across groups.
Possess certain characteristics.
Participants are reasonably homogeneous and unfamiliar with each other.
Provide data. Focus groups pay attention to
the perceptions of the users and consumers of solutions, products, and service.
They are not intended to develop consensus, to arrive at an agreeable plan, or
to make decisions about which course of action to take.
Produce qualitative data.
Focused discussion.
Grudens-Schuck, N., Lundy-Allen,
B., & Larson, K. (2004, May). Focus group fundamentals. Ames, IA: Iowa
State University Extension. Available at
http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM1969B.pdf
Larson, K., Grudens-Schuck, N.,
& Lundy-Allen, B. (2004, May). Can you call it a focus group? Ames, IA:
Iowa State University Extension. Available at
http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM1969A.pdf
Advantages
It is a socially oriented
research procedures.
The format allows the moderator
to probe.
Discussions have high face
validity.
Discussions can be relatively low
cost.
The format can provide speedy
results.
Focus groups enable the
researcher to increase the sample size of qualitative studies.
Limitations
The researcher has less control
in the group interview as compared to the individual interview.
Data are more difficult to
analyze.
The technique requires carefully
trained interviewers.
Groups can vary considerably.
Groups are difficult to assemble
The discussion must be conducted
in an environment conducive to conversation.
Types of Focus Group Questions
Opening Question. This is the
round robin question that everyone answers at the beginning of the focus group.
It is designed to be answered rather quickly (within 10-20 seconds) and to
identify characteristics that the participants have in common. Usually it is
preferably for these questions to be factual as opposed to attitude or
opinion-based questions.
Introductory Questions. These
questions introduce the general topic of discussion and/or provide participants
an opportunity to reflect on past experiences and their connection with the
overall topic. Usually these questions are not critical to the analysis and are
intended to foster conversation and interaction among the participants.
Transition Questions. These move
the conversation into the key questions that drive the study. The transition
questions help the participants envision the topic in a broader scope. They
serve as the logical link between the introductory questions and the key
questions. The participants are becoming aware of how others view the topic.
Key Questions. These questions
drive the study. Typically, there are two to five questions in this category.
These are usually the first questions to be developed and also the ones that
require the greatest attention in the subsequent analysis.
Ending Questions. These questions
bring closure to the discussion, enable participants to reflect back on
previous comments, and are critical to analysis. These questions can be of
three types:
All Things Considered Question.
This allows the participants to state their final position on critical areas of
concern.
Summary Question.
Final Question.
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Define inventories.
2. List three advantages of
inventories.
3. How do you validate an
inventory?
4. Define scale.
5. List three characteristics of
scales.
6. Name the three types of
scales.
7. Name the three types of
attitude scales.
8. Describe value scales.
9. List the types of objective
scales.
10. Define direct observation
methods.
11. List five steps for
systematizing the direct observation methods.
12. Define semantic differential.
13. Name the three clusters of
adjectives used in semantic differential.
14. How do you construct and use
the semantic differential?
15. List the characteristics of
the semantic differential.
17. How do you apply the Q
methodology?
18. List three advantages of Q
methodology.
19. List three disadvantages of Q
methodology.
20. List the steps of a
conference.
21. Define Delphi technique.
22. List the Delphi procedures.
23. List three advantages and
three disadvantages of Delphi technique.
24. List the characteristics of a
focus group.
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